The Importance of the Early Ecumenical Councils

      Before 300 A.D., most churches had very few documents outlining the faith.  In fact, churches were more localized than they were connected.  At this time the canon of Scripture did not exist, and churches were lucky to have portions of the New Testament Scriptures.  As a result of this localization and lack of canon, there was no universally accepted set of doctrines unifying the Early Church churches. The early ecumenical councils were very important to the solidification of key doctrines of the Christian faith.
      When the third century came to a close, it opened the fourth as a period of change for Christianity.  In 312, Emperor Constantine of Rome converted to Christianity after seeing a vision, which came true, of a banner of the cross leading him to victory in battle.  With Constantine's conversion came a dramatic shift for Christianity.  Though Rome persecuted Christianity before Constantine, Christianity suddenly became tolerated and promoted within the Roman Empire. At this time the Church began to take on a more episcopal structure. 
      After Constantine converted to Christianity, he noticed that there were many divisions within the Church and wanted to reunify the Christian Church.  One reason of the divisions was a debate over the divinity/humanity of Christ between followers of Arius who believed Jesus was fully human yet not divine, the followers of Docetism who viewed Christ as fully God yet only appearing human, and those who believed that Christ was fully human and fully divine.  In order to reunify the Church, Constantine called for all of the bishops of the surrounding areas to gather in Nicea (325 A.D.).  This council, known as the Council of Nicea, came together to place in writing the keystone doctrines of the Christian faith against heresies. 
      On top of the Council of Nicea there are six other ecumenical councils, namely: the Council of Constantinople (381), the Council of Ephesus (431), the Council of Chalcedon (451), the Council of Constantinople II (553), the Council of Constantinople III (680), and the Council of Nicea II (787).  All of these councils were reactions against heresies to defend the orthodox Christian faith. The ecumenical councils were and are important, because they helped define the core core doctrines of Christianity while exposing heresies as false doctrine.  At a time when the New Testament canon was scarce, the councils provided Christian orthodoxy for the Church and set the standard for Christendom. 
      Today, the ecumenical councils shine light into the the history of Christianity.  For the modern day theologian, the creeds provide insight into the integral doctrines of the faith.  Though the creeds are not inspired as Scripture, they are a witness to doctrines found within Scripture.  The council's creeds reveal the Church's effort to proclaim the timeless truths revealed in Scripture during a time of theological reaction to false teachings. 

How People Dealt With Faith From the Early Church Through the Enlightenment

            Throughout the history of Christianity, there is a discernable evolution of the idea of faith.  For instance, the Early Church dealt with faith in a different manner than the Medieval Church, as did the Medieval Church from the Church during the Reformation, and so on through the Enlightenment until today.  In this post, special attention is given to the Early Church, the Medieval Church, the time of the Reformation, and the Enlightenment.  All of these held different views of faith. 

            To start off with, what did the Early Church do with the idea of faith?  The Early Church period was a tumultuous time for young Christendom.  Though Christians of this period lived the closest to the apostles and Christ, knowing solid doctrines was hard, because the Scriptures were not circulated well and there was no set canon until the fourth century.  Because of this lack of a foundation, the Early Church focused on making faith normative.  Normative in the sense that the church fathers solidified doctrine. 

            In the Early Church one easily finds debates between Christian leaders as to which doctrines are sound.  An example of this is Ignatius' attack on Docetism which held that Jesus Christ was fully divine, but only appeared to be human.  Also within the Early Church, leaders created creeds that expressed basic and essential orthodox doctrines within Christianity.  The Apostle's Creed and Chalcedonian Creed are examples of this.

            During the Early Church, the church fathers wrote vast amounts of letters and books explaining the Christian faith.  This included men like Ignatius, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Augustine of Hippo, and Gregory the Great.  The works of both Tertullian and Augustine still impact today's theology.  Among these works are Augustine's Confessions and On the Trinity. 

            Towards the middle of the sixth century, a shift occurred in how people viewed faith.  In the Medieval Church, Christianity conceived two great theologians and philosophers: Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) and Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274).  At this time, people began to view faith as something that needed to be reasonable.  Both Anselm and Aquinas were determined to make faith reasonable.  Aquinas believed that reason, apart from faith, could lead one to grasp spiritual truths like the Trinity and the incarnation of Christ. 

            Through efforts of Anselm and Aquinas, Scholasticism reached its zenith in the High Middle Ages.  Scholasticism was the idea of reconciling faith and reason.  The Scholastic method included asking a question, discussing all the sides of arguments about the subject, and then arriving at a conclusion based upon reason.  Through Scholastic methods, Aquinas and Anselm both made proofs of the existence of God.  This was the method through which the Medieval Church made faith reasonable. 

            In the sixteenth century, the idea of faith transformed yet again.  At this time, the Protestant Reformation began.  Before the Reformation, people relied heavily upon educated theologians to provide them with information about how to live.  Because the printing press was not invented yet, Bibles were in great demand.   Most of the Bibles were owned by either monasteries or leaders of churches who could use them to teach others.  The everyday layman did not usually have a chance to own a copy of his own to study. 

            With the Reformation came the push of making faith personal.  Martin Luther led this by translating the Bible into the vernacular of the Germans.  Translating the Scriptures into the vernacular of the day opened up many doors for faith to become personal, because more and more people were able to dig into the Scriptures themselves.  The Reformation pushed faith into the realm of the individual where people could ask what faith really means and develop a relationship with God themselves instead of needing a priest to teach them. 

            As the Medieval Church strived in making faith reasonable, the Enlightenment period (c. 1700-1800) made faith bound to reason.  During the Enlightenment, unaided human reason became the judge of truth.  Two different groups appeared out of this time period: the Rationalists, and the Empiricists.

             Rationalists believed that human reason was the source of finding truth, because sense experiences are erroneous.  Empiricists believed that only sense experiences provided truth, because brains only image that which is sensed.  Both of these groups took faith and ultimately threw it out the door, because neither group could prove knowledge from faith through their epistemologies.  Reason became the norm, where faith and metaphysics could not be considered knowledge.  Knowledge could only come from reason unaided by faith.  Man became the ultimate judge of truth rather than God. 

            Moving through the periods of Christianity until the nineteenth century, one finds a discernable transition among the different eras and how each one dealt with faith.  Each period came as a response to earlier periods.  Every new theology came as a response to earlier theologies.  In the big picture, one finds the truth of God (from the Early Church) replaced with the truth of man discovered by his "omnipotent" reason (from the Enlightenment). Knowing these transitions makes it easier to see where theologies of today come from.

The Most Important Church Fathers

           

           Between the first and fifth century A.D. many people influenced Christian theology.  Some brought clarification of doctrines through using the Scriptures, while others developed heresies by not using the Scriptures as their foundational source.  The church fathers were leaders of the faith from after the founding of the Church at Pentecost until the late fifth to early sixth century A.D. who made significant impacts on the Christian faith.  Important church fathers of this time include: Ignatius (died c. 107), Justin Martyr (c. 100-165), Irenaeus (c. middle second century), Tertullian (c. 160-225), Augustine of Hippo (354-430), and Gregory I (The Great) (c. 540-604).

            Ignatius was the Bishop of Antioch in Syria who lived during the time close to the New Testament writers.  Holding views similar to the writers of the New Testament, Ignatius carried a commitment to Christ and his physical birth, death, and resurrection.  Though the New Testament writes of local churches governed by elders of equal standing, Ignatius' letters recorded the growth of episcopal structure where a single bishop would rule over a city. (1)

            In Ignatius' letters one discovers most of Ignatius' teachings.  Ignatius wrote against two leading heresies of his day: the Ebionite heresy and Docetism.  The Ebionite heresy declared the Jewish regulations of the Old Testament as the way of salvation.  To combat this view, Ignatius said that one should actually reject the Jewish practices totally.  Docetism taught that Jesus was fully God, but only appeared to be man.  In his defense against Docetism, Ignatius affirmed the virgin birth of Jesus.  Ignatius also stated that the disciples touched the actual physical body of Christ after his resurrection. (2)   

            Justin Martyr was born in Palestine to Greek parents.  Throughout his life, stories of Christian martyrs strongly affected Justin Martyr, but he became a Christian by the influence of an older humble Christian.  To Justin Martyr, "Christianity was Platonism and Stoicism corrected and completed by the Bible and by the Logos that enlightens everyone." (3) Standing for the historical truth of Christ, Justin Martyr opposed Gnostic heresies.  Justin Martyr also stood against Marcionism, which held that Christianity should separate itself from Old Testament precedents.  Both Ignatius and Justin Martyr held the view that the Church is the true Israel.  Reformed Theology of today holds a similar view. 

            Irenaeus studied under the apostolic father Polycarp while living in Asia Minor.  In Who's Who in Christian History, Irenaeus is noted as "one of the most important Christian writers of the second century." (4)  Succeeding Polycarp as bishop of Lyons, Irenaeus rebuked Gnostic heresies.  He was the first to compile four Gospels, some of the apostolic writings, and the Old Testament as canon.  Irenaeus believed in the authority of faith stemming from the apostles directly through the elders.  Irenaeus founded his theology more heavily in the Scriptures than the later Greek church fathers.  (5)

            Tertullian spent his whole life in Carthage.  Growing up, he received the best possible education and became a very well educated man.  In his thirties, Tertullian converted to Christianity and taught at his local church.  Tertullian made an incredible impact on Christian theology.  His works played major roles in the ecumenical councils and in the development of Augustine of Hippo's theology. 

            Some of Tertullian's theology include: God as trinitas (three persons in one substance), the hypostatic union of Christ (both His human and divine natures), man's subjection to original sin, and Christ's virgin birth and resurrection. (6)  Though Tertullian viewed some Apocryphal books as revelation, Tertullian viewed all of the books which make up the present canon of Scripture as authoritative texts.  Tertullian promoted a lot of the views which are considered orthodoxy today. 

            The search for truth from philosophy dominated Augustine of Hippo's life until the age of thirty-three when he converted to Christianity and sought baptism.  After conversion, Augustine became the bishop of Hippo Regius, a coastal town in the Roman province of Numidia.  One of Augustine's great works is his book titled: Confessions.  In this journal, Augustine examined his Christian walk.  Confessions also portrays a theologically sound and full view of man.  Another important text from Augustine is his work titled: On the Trinity.  This major work of Augustine's brought the doctrine of the trinity to its completion. (7)

            Throughout Augustine's time as bishop, he refuted heresies within the church and attacks from outside the church.  In 311 A.D. the Donatist church formed under the idea that sacraments served or performed by an unholy bishop were not valid.  Augustine wrote that man does not give the sacraments their effect, but rather it is God who graces them.  Though the Donatists believed they were the "pure church," Augustine refuted this by showing that there will always be weeds mixed in the wheat before final separation at harvest.  (8)

            In the beginning of the fifth century, Rome was attacked by the barbaric King Alaric.  Pagans blamed Christians for this suffering and devastation, because they turned away from the gods of Old Rome.  Augustine, over a period of twenty years, wrote a book titled The City of God, in a collection of twenty-two books which refuted the attack of the pagans.  His book describes a biblical view of history.  (9)

            Another heresy Augustine attacked was that of Pelagianism and Semi-Pelagianism.  Pelagianism views humans as good by nature and capable of perfection apart from God.  Pelagius criticized Augustine's view of the dependence of man on God's grace.   In Augustine's attack against Pelagianism and Semi-Pelagianism, Augustine outlined the following doctrines: Adam was not mortal before the Fall of Humanity, all of mankind is born with original sin as transmitted through Adam, even infants need the remission of sins, the will and grace of God is sovereign over man, man can only do good out of the grace of God, and perfection is not attained in this life. (10)

            Augustine of Hippo is one of the most important church fathers.  Many view Augustine as second only to Paul.   His theology impacted not only his time period, but it still impacts western culture and theology today.  It is because of Augustine that the grace of God is the central theme of the gospel in western theology. 

            Gregory I is the last of the great church fathers.  Gregory believed in the verbal inspiration of Scripture.  For him, it was not important to try to know who the writers of books of the Bible actually were.  Along with this belief, Gregory thought that sin might be forgiven on the basis of repentance.  This idea led to a "mechanical theory of penance and indulgences," which kept its prevalence throughout the Medieval Church. (11)

            Gregory became the Pope when the emperor deserted Rome.  After the death of Gregory, people viewed the Pope as the chief bishop of the West.  Throughout his time in Rome, Gregory tried to extinguish the remaining strands of Arian heresy in Rome and reunite the Eastern and Western church.  On top of this, Gregory wrote many books containing sermons, views of the pastoral life, and expositions on Scripture. (12)

            All of these church fathers made great impacts on Christianity and theology.  Some of them did not promote the best of doctrines, but each of them was nonetheless important in shaping Christian Theology.  The most important of the church fathers were Tertullian and Augustine of Hippo.  These two men made an indelible mark on the study of the Scriptures and central doctrines.   

           

*Sources*:

1. J. Newton. eds. J.D. Douglas, P.W. Comfort, and D. Mitchell. Who's Who in Christian History. (Wheaton, Il.: Tyndale House, c1992). Libronix Digital Library System.

2. Ibid

3. A. Cabaniss. eds. J.D. Douglas, P.W. Comfort, and D. Mitchell. Who's Who in Christian History. (Wheaton, Il.: Tyndale House, c1992). Libronix Digital Library System.

4.  J. Newton. eds. J.D. Douglas, P.W. Comfort, and D. Mitchell. Who's Who in Christian History. (Wheaton, Il.: Tyndale House, c1992). Libronix Digital Library System.

5. Ibid

6. K.J. Bryer. eds. J.D. Douglas, P.W. Comfort, and D. Mitchell. Who's Who in Christian History. (Wheaton, Il.: Tyndale House, c1992). Libronix Digital Library System.

7.  J. Newton. eds. J.D. Douglas, P.W. Comfort, and D. Mitchell. Who's Who in Christian History. (Wheaton, Il.: Tyndale House, c1992). Libronix Digital Library System.

 
8. Ibid

9. Ibid

10. Ibid

11. D.S. Cushman and J.D. Douglas. eds. J.D. Douglas, P.W. Comfort, and D. Mitchell. Who's Who in Christian History. (Wheaton, Il.: Tyndale House, c1992). Libronix Digital Library System.

12. Ibid.

*Note: All of my written work is from research from Who's Who in Christian History, which is found in the Libronix Digital Library System.  I researched these church fathers in other texts, but this source contained the best description found. 

SOLA SCRIPTURA: AN OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC OF BIBLICAL AUTHORITY

            Biblical authority is the concept that the Bible is God's inspired, inerrant, and authoritative word.    Containing the full authority of God, the Bible stands as the revelation of God to the world and the source of truth on matters of life and eternity.  This is a significant topic, because it not only affects Christians, but all of creation as well.  If the Bible was not inspired by God, then the very foundation of Christian theology and Christianity would crumble to pieces.  However, since the Bible is God's word, those who reject it, reject their Creator and His authority.¹ To understand Biblical authority, one must first start with an understanding of its inspiration. 

            Throughout the Old and New Testaments, Scripture is referred to as inspired by God.  This is generally regarded as to the style of oration, but one can see that the written word carries the same authority.²  For instance, Jesus continually spoke truth in the form of "it is written."³  Jesus' adherence to the written form, the Old Testament (OT), speaks to its status as inspired and, thus, authoritative.  He spoke as if the OT was God's word, so it should be regarded as so.⁴  Paul, in 2 Timothy 3:16, ascribes the quality of being "breathed out by God" to Scripture.  In this sense, God did not just give them inspiration, but He spoke through them, using their own writing styles.⁵  Another verse that relays this message is 2 Peter 1:21.  "The Scripture's human authors were controlled by the divine Author, the Holy Spirit."⁶  Scripture did not come from man or his own creativity, but was "breathed out by God."⁷

            To Christians, the New Testament (NT) is regarded to be on the same level of authority as the OT.  One reason for this is that of the authority invested in those who wrote the books of the NT.  Jesus commissioned men as apostles who would watch over the founding of the Church. He promised them that the Spirit of truth would indwell and lead them.  They wrote the words of God to the Church as they were consciously moved by the Spirit.⁸  For the NT canon, the writings were chosen based upon whether the authorship was apostolic, whether they contained apostolic messages, whether they included claims to inspiration, and whether they were accepted by loyal churches.⁹  Also, Christians have historically thought that the Holy Spirit directed the canonization of the New Testament by God's providence.¹⁰

            Being "breathed out by God," the OT and NT contain God's mark of authorship, and therefore carry the authority of God Himself.  Naturally following the inspiration of Scripture is the notion of their infallibility.  Because God is perfect, His word stands perfect as well.  Our God is a God of truth.  He does not deceive.  His word is perfect and "profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be competent, equipped for every good work" (2 Tim. 3:16).  Since it is His word, the Bible has authority over truth and matters of life.  As such, it stands as the normative rule over all creation. Christianity stands on this, as the authority of the Bible is the firm foundation that Christianity grounds its theology in.  As Christians it is important to truly believe that the Bible is the authoritative Word of God, because it is on the Bible that believers find truth and come closer to God, through the inner working of the Holy Spirit.   

Endnotes:

¹ Walter A. Elwell, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology, (Grand Rapids: Baker              Book House Company, 1996), 55.

² Geoffrey W. Bromiley, ed., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, (Grand Rapids:         William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1988), Volume 4, 365.

³ Merrill C. Tenney, ed., The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, (Grand Rapids:         Zondervan Publishing House, 1975), Volume 5, 308.

⁴ Walter A. Elwell, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House   Company, 1984), 139.

⁵ M.G. Easton, Easton's Bible Dictionary, (Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems Inc., 1996),       Libronix Digital Library.

⁶ J.F. Walvoord and R.B. Zuck, The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, (Wheaton: Victor Books, 1983), Libronix Digital Library.

⁷ W.W. Wiersbe, The Bible Exposition Commentary: An Exposition of the New Testament,             (Wheaton: Victor Books, 1996), Libronix Digital Library. 

⁸ Merrill C. Tenney, ed., The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, 306.

⁹ Walter A. Elwell, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology, 55.

¹⁰ Ibid., 61.

Bibliography:

Bromiley, Geoffrey W., ed. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Grand Rapids:                 William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1988. Volume 4, 362-363.

Easton, M.G.  Easton's Bible Dictionary. Oak Harbor: Logos Research Systems Inc., 1996.           Libronix Digital Library.

Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book       House Company, 1996. 55-61.

Elwell, Walter A., ed.  Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House      Company, 1984. 136-145.

Tenney, Merrill C., ed. The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible. Grand Rapids:             Zondervan Publishing House, 1975. Volume 5, 304-310.

Walvoord, J.F., Zuck, R.B. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures.   Wheaton: Victor Books, 1983. Libronix Digital Library.

Wiersbe, W.W. The Bible Exposition Commentary: An Exposition of the New Testament.   Wheaton 

Why Is Theology Important?

       Why is theology important? What is theology?  Who needs it?  These are all questions asked in today's culture by Christians and non-Christians alike.  Some people view theology as divisive, while others believe theology gets in the way of truly knowing God.  People also think theology is for educated theologians who sit behind their desks reading for hours upon end and publishing works of grandeur which bear new light on the esoteric nature of God.

       None of these views of theology is accurate.  Theology is vital to the Christian life.  Stanley J. Grenz and Roger E. Olson give a wonderful description of theology in their book titled, Who Needs Theology?: An Invitation to the Study of God.  In this, they wrote:

Christian theology is reflecting on and articulating the God-centered life and beliefs that Christians share as followers of Jesus Christ, and it is done in order that God may be glorified in all Christians are and do. Soli Deo gloria.  (1)

       Christian theology is not about discovering random truths about God.  The foundational source for Christian theology is the Bible, because of its inspiration, inerrancy, and authority as God's word.  Theology discovers doctrines by reflecting on Scripture and bringing Scripture's meaning and essence to light under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.  These doctrines are important, because they affect how Christians view God, their relationship to Him, humanity, sin, and so much more.  Without theology, no one would know anything about God. 

       There are two main tasks in Christian theology.  First, theology examines and evaluates beliefs and categorizes valid Christian beliefs based upon their importance.  This task is known as the critical task of theology.  Second, theology constructs "unified models of diverse biblical teaching," and relates these "models relevantly to contemporary culture." (2) This is the constructive portion of theology.  Good theology builds up a systematic set of beliefs in the light of Scripture and leads to a unity within Christ's Church. 

      J.I. Packer made some good points regarding the importance of theology.  First of all, he explained that theology equips Christians for witness.  Christians are called by God to be His witnesses to the world.  On top of this, Packer asserts that theology helps provide discernment in practical matters. (3)  A firm understanding of the biblical truths guides how one lives out their life.  Actions spring out from the heart and mind.  Without this understanding, trying to please God would be futile.

       As an example of how good theology can affect a person, one should look at Dietrich Bonhoeffer.  Bonhoeffer lived in Germany and saw the rise of Nazism under Adolf Hitler.  Bonhoeffer's Scripture based theology revealed how terrible and sinful the country's pride and actions were.  What Bonhoeffer discovered in the biblical text led him to stand and preach against Hitler's regime, anti-semitism, and the theological errors of Germany. (4)

       Bonhoeffer lived as a witness of God to the people of Germany and made a difference for the Kingdom.  His words and works still impact lives today.  This is how powerful theology can be.  Aided by the Holy Spirit, it can empower people to make a difference in this world for Jesus Christ. 
      
       Theology is for everyone, because everyone deals and grapples with beliefs about God.  Most importantly, theology is for Christians who were called to live a life pleasing to God.  By reflecting on and applying God's word in the light of other biblical teachings, people can grow closer to God and know Him more.  Theology is important, because it equips the believer for effective ministry/witness, provides grounds for better discernment, lends to unity within Christ's Church, and leads one to not only a better understanding of God, but a better relationship with Him.  All of this is done to the glory of God. 




Here is a video of J.I. Packer teaching a lesson titled, Theology is for Everyone.

Sources:

1.  Stanley J. Grenz and Roger E. Olson, Who Needs Theology?: An Invitation to the Study of God, (Illinois, InverVarsity Press, 1996), 49.

2.  Ibid, 80.

3.  Video, "Theology is For Everyone (J.I. Packer)", http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EGdpY0OcV_M.

4.   Darren C. Marks, "The Mind Under Grace: Why a heady dose of doctrine is crucial to spiritual formation," Christianity Today, http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2010/march/13.22.html, Accessed: 9/11/11. 

Introduction:

         Learning without reflection is not learning at all.  In order to utilize what one learns, the process of reflection is vital.  No matter what one learns--whether it is in academics, for a hobby, or some physical activity--reflection provides a way of setting that which is learned to heart and mind. 

       For this reason, I write this blog.  As I learn, I want to write to reflect and share what I learn.  My goal is to write about theological matters that speak truth and are relevant to today's culture in America.  More than anything, I want to reveal and write about timeless truths God revealed in the Holy Scriptures.  This blog is about theology and the history of theological development from Christ's death and resurrection until today.